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• Patellofemoral Pain Syndrome (Runner’s Knee)

  Patellofemoral pain syndrome (or runner's knee) is the most common overuse injury among runners, but it can also happen to other athletes who do activities that require a lot of knee bending.

• Pectus Carinatum: Bracing

  Pectus carinatum is when the chest juts out. Sometimes it's treated by wearing a brace.

• Pectus Excavatum: The Nuss Procedure

  The Nuss procedure is a surgery to correct severe pectus excavatum. It’s considered "minimally invasive" because only a few small cuts are needed.

• Pectus Excavatum: Vacuum Bell Device

  Health care providers sometimes suggest that kids use a vacuum bell to help correct pectus excavatum, a condition that causes a caved-in chest.

• Polydactyly

  Polydactyly is when a baby is born with an extra finger on the hand or an extra toe on the foot. It can be on one or both hands or feet.

• Postural Kyphosis

  Postural kyphosis is rounding or hunching of the back that usually affects teens. It's due to "bad" posture and not disease.

• Idiopathic Scoliosis

  Kids of any age can have idiopathic scoliosis, but it's usually found when a child begins going through puberty. Find out more about the signs of and treatment for idiopathic scoliosis.

• In-Toeing

  In-toeing is when feet point inward while walking. It happens in a lot of kids who are learning to walk. Sometimes people call it walking "pigeon-toed."

• Incentive Spirometer

  An incentive spirometer trains people to take slow, deep breaths. It's used during recovery from some types of surgery or as a way to manage illness. Find out how it works.

• Knee Injuries

  Knee injuries are common among young athletes. Learn about causes, treatments, and prevention.

• Knock Knees (Genu Valgum)

  Kids often have knock knees (when knees touch but the ankles are apart). They usually go away without on their own by the time a child is 7 or 8 years old.

• Kyphosis

  Everyone's spine is slightly rounded forward at a gentle angle. If this angle is too pronounced, more than 50 degrees or so, it's called kyphosis, also known as roundback or hunchback.

• Leg Length Discrepancy

  Leg length discrepancy is when someone’s legs are different lengths. For a big difference or one that's likely to get worse, treatment is recommended.

• Legg-Calvé-Perthes Disease

  Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease changes the hip joint and can cause a stiff joint, pain, and a limp.

• Limb Differences

  Kids with limb deformities have differences in the way their arms or legs are shaped. Some don't need treatment, For those that do, doctors have different options.

• Limb Lengthening Surgery: External Fixator

  Limb lengthening surgery is done when someone has a leg length discrepancy (one leg is shorter than the other). Sometimes this is treated with an external fixator.

• Limb Lengthening Surgery: Internal Lengthening Device

  Limb lengthening surgery is done when someone has a leg length discrepancy (one leg is shorter than the other). Sometimes this is treated with an internal lengthening device (a rod with a magnet).

• Little League Elbow

  Little League elbow is an overuse injury to the elbow caused by repetitive throwing. Most cases happen in pitchers, but any young athlete who throws a lot can get the condition.

• Low Calcium in Babies (Hypocalcemia)

  Hypocalcemia is when the blood has too little calcium. It can be treated with calcium and vitamin D supplements.

• Medial Collateral Ligament (MCL) Injuries

  MCL injuries can happen in active and athletic kids, when excessive pressure is put on the knee joint, resulting in a torn ligament.

• Meningocele

  Some babies are born with a meningocele, which is a sac that pushes through the gap in the spine. With surgery to fix the problem, most babies with a meningocele live a healthy, normal life.

• Dislocated Kneecap (Dislocated Patella)

  A dislocated kneecap is when the bone in the front of the knee (the kneecap or patella) slides out of place. A person with a dislocated kneecap needs care at the hospital right away.

• External Fixator: Pin Care

  External fixators used for limb lengthening have pins that go through the skin and into the bone. It's important to know how to care for the pins at home to prevent infections.

• Fibular Hemimelia

  Babies who have fibular hemimelia are born with a short or missing fibula. Experts who treat bone problems have several options to help kids with a hemimelia.

• Flat Feet

  Most babies and toddlers have flat feet. As they grow, an arch usually develops. But some kids have flat feet for life.

• Ganglion Cysts

  Ganglion cysts are lumps that, most commonly, appear on the back of the wrist. These cysts are not cancerous and are easily treated.

• Getting an X-Ray

  An X-ray is a safe and painless test that uses a small amount of radiation to make an image of bones, organs, and other parts of the body. Here's how they're done.

• Goldenhar Syndrome

  Goldenhar syndrome can cause incomplete development of bones in the face, affecting the ear, nose, soft palate, lip, and jaw. A cleft and craniofacial care team can help kids born with the condition.

• Greenstick Fractures

  A greenstick fracture is a type of broken bone. The bone cracks on one side only, not all the way through the bone.

• Growth Plate Fractures

  Injuries to growth plates, which produce new bone tissue and determine the final length and shape of bones in adulthood, must be treated so that bones heal properly.

• Growth Plates

  Growth plates are the areas of new bone growth, usually near the ends of long bones. A growth plate is weaker than solid bone. This makes it more likely to get injured.

• Halo Brace

  Much like a fiberglass cast holds a broken arm or leg in place, a "halo" with vest holds a child's head and neck in place after a spinal injury so that spinal bones can heal.

• Halo-Gravity Traction

  Halo-gravity traction is a way to pull the head and spine upward. Doctors use it to treat curvature of the spine and to prepare kids for spinal fusion surgery.

• How Broken Bones Heal

  Broken bones have an amazing ability to heal, especially in kids. Full healing can take time, but new bone usually forms a few weeks after an injury.

• Bow Legs (Genu Varum)

  Bow legs is when the legs curve outward at the knees while the feet and ankles touch. Infants and toddlers often have bow legs. It's rarely serious and usually goes away on its own.

• Broken Bones

  Many kids will have a broken bone at some point. Here's what to expect.

• Broken Collarbone (Clavicle Fracture)

  Learn about broken collarbones (or clavicle fractures), a common sports injury in kids.

• Buckle Fractures

  A buckle or torus fracture is a type of broken bone. One side of the bone bends, raising a little buckle, without breaking the other side of the bone.

• Casts

  Casts keep bones and other tissues in place while they heal. Here's what to expect, and how to care for casts.

• Cervical Kyphosis

  Cervical kyphosis is a curve at the top of the spine (backbone). Usually, the condition isn't serious, but a pinch in the spinal cord can cause nerve damage.

• Chest Wall Disorder: Pectus Carinatum

  Pectus carinatum, sometimes called pigeon chest, is when the chest wall causes the chest to jut out.

• Chest Wall Disorder: Pectus Excavatum

  Pectus excavatum is when several ribs and the breastbone grow abnormally, giving the chest a "caved-in" appearance.

• Chest Wall Disorder: Poland Syndrome

  Poland syndrome is a condition where a child is born with missing or underdeveloped chest muscles.

• Clubfoot

  Clubfoot is a birth defect that makes one or both of a baby's feet point down and turn in. Most clubfeet can be successfully corrected using the nonsurgical Ponseti method.

• Comminuted Fractures

  A comminuted fracture is a type of broken bone. The bone is broken into more than two pieces.

• Common Childhood Orthopedic Conditions

  Flatfeet, toe walking, pigeon toes, bowlegs, and knock-knees. Lots of kids have these common orthopedic conditions, but are they medical problems that can and should be corrected?

• Compression Fracture of the Spine

  A compression fracture of the spine is when the vertebrae (bones that form the spine) collapses. People with weakened bones can get them from a minor fall or with no trauma at all.

• Congenital Kyphosis

  Kyphosis is a rounding of the back that some children are born with. It makes the back look hunched over.

• Congenital Scoliosis

  Congenital scoliosis is when the bones in a baby’s spine don’t form normally before birth. The baby may be born with a curved spine or develop one later.

• Costochondritis

  Costochondritis is a painful swelling of the cartilage that attaches the ribs to the breastbone. It's one of the most common causes of chest pain in kids and teens.

• Craniosynostosis

  Craniosynostosis is when seams between bones in the skull close too soon. When this happens, the skull can’t expand grow as it should, and it develops an unusual shape.

• Developmental Dysplasia of the Hip

  Babies can be born with this hip problem or develop it soon after birth. Early treatment can help the hip joint grow normally.

• What’s a Nasopharyngoscopy? (Video)

  A nasopharyngoscopy is a quick procedure that uses a special camera to help a doctor look at the back of the throat.

• Arthrogram

  An arthrogram is a test done to look inside a joint for injuries or other problems.

• Enthesitis-Related Juvenile Arthritis

  Enthesitis-related juvenile idiopathic arthritis causes inflammation where tendons and ligaments connect to bones. Treatments can help with symptoms, so children can live a full and active life.

• Fibromyalgia

  The chronic condition fibromyalgia causes widespread pain in the muscles, joints, and other areas of the body. Lifestyle changes and other strategies can help kids who have it feel better.

• Jumper’s Knee

  Jumper's knee is an overuse injury that happens when frequent jumping, running, and changing direction damages the patellar tendon.

• Juvenile Dermatomyositis

  Juvenile dermatomyositis (JDM) is an autoimmune disease that makes muscles, skin, and sometimes other organs become inflamed or damaged.

• Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis

  Juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) is a group of disorders that cause arthritis (stiff, swollen, painful joints) in children.

• Lupus

  Lupus is known as an autoimmune disease in which a person's immune system mistakenly works against the body's own tissues.

• Oligoarticular Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis

  Oligoarticular juvenile idiopathic arthritis is a type of juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA). Children with the condition have arthritis in fewer than five joints, and treatments can help with symptoms

• Polyarticular Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis

  Children with polyarticular juvenile idiopathic arthritis have arthritis in five or more joints during the first 6 months of illness. Treatments can help with symptoms, so children can live a full and active life.

• Systemic Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis

  Children with systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis (systemic JIA) have periods of arthritis along with a fever and rash. Treatments can help with symptoms, so children can live a full and active life.

• 3 Ways to Build Strong Bones

  We build almost all our bone density when we're kids and teens. Kids with strong bones have a better chance of avoiding bone weakness later in life. Here's how parents can help.

• Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL) Tears

  ACL injuries can happen in active and athletic kids when excessive pressure is put on the knee joint, resulting in a torn ligament.

• Arthrogryposis

  Children with arthrogryposis have stiff joints that don't move well. Treatments like splinting, bracing, therapy, and surgery help kids get the best range of motion.

• Basilar Invagination

  Basilar invagination is when the top of the spine pushes up into the base of the skull. It causes pinching and pressing on the brain stem.

• Becker Muscular Dystrophy

  Becker muscular dystrophy is a genetic disorder that gradually makes the body's muscles weaker and smaller. It causes less severe problems than the most common type of MD, Duchenne muscular dystrophy.

• Blount Disease

  Blount disease is a growth disorder that causes the bones of the lower leg to bow outward. This gets worse if it's not treated, so early diagnosis is very important.

• Microtia

  Microtia is when the outside part of the ear smaller than normal and, sometimes, misshapen. Children with microtia usually have normal hearing. If needed, treatments can reshape the ear.

• Nasopharyngoscopy

  A nasopharyngoscopy is an exam doctors do to view the back of the throat.

• Orofacial Clefts

  A cleft is when tissues of the mouth or lip don't form properly when a baby is developing in the womb. The good news is that orofacial clefts are treatable.

• Ototoxicity (Ear Poisoning)

  Ototoxicity is when a person develops hearing or balance problems. Learn about this side effect of taking certain medicines.

• Peritonsillar Abscess

  Older kids and teens with tonsilitis sometimes develop this painful abscess, a pus-filled tissue at the back of the mouth.

• Protruding Ears

  Protruding ears is when ears stick out from the side of the head. They don’t cause any medical problems, but if parents or the child want the ears fixed, treatments can help.

• Sinonasal Tumors

  A sinonasal tumor is a growth in the nose, the space behind the nose, or in the sinuses. The tumors can be benign (not cancer) or malignant (cancer).

• Speech-Language Therapy

  Working with a certified speech-language pathologist can help a child with speech or language difficulties.

• Speech-Language Therapy for Children With Cleft Palate

  Speech-language pathologists help kids with speech problems related to a cleft palate. Find out what they do.

• Stuttering

  Many young kids go through a stage when they stutter. Stuttering usually goes away on its own but in some cases lasts longer.

• Submucous Cleft Palate

  In a submucous cleft palate, the muscles of the palate don't form properly, but the tissue that lines the roof of the mouth does. This makes these clefts harder to see.

• Tonsillectomy

  A tonsillectomy is surgery to remove the tonsils. It's one of the most common surgeries kids and teens get. Find out more.

• Tympanoplasty

  Tympanoplasty is a surgery to repair a hole in the eardrum that doesn’t close on its own. It can improve hearing and prevent water from getting into the middle ear.

• Velopharyngeal Dysfunction (VPD)

  When sound and air leaks into the nasal cavity during speech, this is called velopharyngeal dysfunction (VPD).

• Vocal Cord Dysfunction (VCD)

  Vocal cord dysfunction (VCD) means that the vocal cords partially close during breathing, so air has more trouble getting through.

• What’s Ear Tube Surgery (Myringotomy)? (Video)

  A doctor might suggest ear tube surgery if a child gets many ear infections that don't clear up easily or the ear infections seem to be causing hearing loss or speech delay. Ear tube surgery can drain fluid from the middle ear, prevent future infections, and help the child hear properly again.

• What’s a Cochlear Implant? (Video)

  A cochlear implant is a surgically placed device that helps a person with severe hearing loss hear sounds. Doctors consider cochlear implants for children under 12 months of age with profound hearing loss in both ears. Older children with serious hearing loss also may get cochlear implants.

• Cleft Palate With Cleft Lip

  A cleft palate with a cleft lip is when a baby's lip and palate (roof of mouth) don't form properly during pregnancy. Most kids with cleft lip and palate are treated successfully with no lasting problems.

• Cochlear Implants

  Cochlear implants can help many kids with severe hearing loss. Find out how they work and who can get them.

• Constricted Ears

  Constricted ears is when the outer part of the ear is either wrinkled, folded, or flat. They don’t cause any medical problems, but if parents or the child want the ears fixed, treatments can help.

• Cryptotia

  Cryptotia is when the top part of the ear is underneath the skin. If needed, treatments can reshape the ear.

• Ear Anomalies

  An ear anomaly is when the size or shape of the outer, middle, or inner ear is different than usual. It can change how the ear looks and how a child hears.

• Ear Canal Stenosis

  Ear canal stenosis is a narrow ear canal. If it leads to hearing loss or other problems, surgery can help.

• Ear Injuries

  Ear injuries not only can affect a child's hearing, but sense of balance too. That's because our ears also help keep us steady on our feet.

• Ear Pits

  An ear pit is a small opening (about the size of a pinhead) in front of the ear. They're common and usually don’t cause problems or need treatment.

• Ear Tags

  An ear tag is a small lump of skin, fat, or cartilage in front of the ear. They’re painless, but doctors can remove them with surgery.

• Ear Tube Surgery

  Many kids get middle ear infections (otitis media). Doctors may suggest ear tube surgery for those with multiple infections or a hearing loss or speech delay.

• Eardrum Injuries

  A "popped" eardrum is more than just painful - it can sometimes lead to hearing loss. Learn about ruptured eardrums and how to prevent them.

• Ears

  Hearing may be the ears' main job, but it's not all they do. Learn all about the ears in this Body Basics article.

• Hearing Aids

  Hearing aids are the main treatment for a type of hearing loss called sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL). They work by making sounds louder.

• Hearing Loss

  Kids who have hearing loss, or hearing impairment, have trouble hearing or understanding some or all sounds. It’s best to catch hearing problems right away, because treatment is more successful if it starts early.

• Hearing Loss Factsheet (for Schools)

  What teachers should know about hearing impairments, and how to help students who have one succeed in school.

• Hearing Tests

  Hearing problems can be overcome if they're caught early, so it's important to get your child's hearing screened early and checked regularly.

• How to Give Your Child Ear Drops

  Tips for parents on getting drops into a child's ear.

• Immunizations and Cochlear Implants

  Children with cochlear implants have a higher risk than other kids of getting some types of bacterial meningitis. Vaccines can help protect them.

• Juvenile Nasopharyngeal Angiofibroma

  A juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma is a growth in the area behind the nose. They're benign but can damage nerves and bones and block ear and sinus drainage. Almost all JNAs are in teenage boys.

• Renal Tubular Acidosis

  This kidney problem causes acid levels in the blood to become too high, causing fatigue, muscle weakness, and other kidney problems. The condition is usually treatable.

• Testicular Torsion

  This emergency condition causes extreme genital pain and usually requires surgery to save a boy's testicle. If your son has groin pain, get him to a doctor right away.

• Ureteral Stent

  A ureteral stent is a small plastic tube placed inside the ureter to help pee pass from a kidney into the bladder.

• Vesicoureteral Reflux (VUR)

  This problem with the urinary tract causes urine to flow backward from the bladder to the kidneys. Most cases can be treated effectively, and many kids outgrow the condition.

• What’s a Hydrocele? (Video)

  A hydrocele (HI-dro-seel) is a pouch of fluid around the testicle inside the scrotum. Hydroceles are common in newborns, especially in premature babies. Older boys and men can get them too.

• Wilms Tumor

  Wilms tumor is a cancer of the kidneys that usually affects newborns and the very young. Fortunately, most kids with Wilms tumor survive and go on to live normal, healthy lives.

• A to Z: Bullous Myringitis

  Learn about bullous myringitis, an infection of the tympanic membrane (eardrum).

• Adenoids and Adenoidectomy

  Enlarged adenoids are normal some kids, but others need surgery. Often, tonsils and adenoids are removed at the same time.

• Anotia

  Anotia is when a baby’s ear doesn’t form normally, so the baby is born with the outer part of their ear missing.

• Auditory Brainstem Response (ABR) Test

  An auditory brainstem response (ABR) test is a safe and painless test that gives health care providers information about possible hearing loss.

• Aural Atresia

  Aural atresia is a condition that happens before birth in which a baby’s ear canal doesn’t form. It causes hearing loss, but treatments can help most children hear better.

• Balance Disorders

  Most kids stumble and fall from time to time, but a child who often loses their balance might have a balance disorder.

• Cholesteatoma

  A cholesteatoma is a growth behind the eardrum that can damage the bones of the middle ear. Treating it can help prevent hearing loss.

• Chronic Hoarseness

  Misuse of the vocal cords — caused by such things as repetitive screaming, yelling, or using the voice in an unnatural way — can lead to chronic hoarseness. Learn how to get the voice back into perfect pitch.

• Cleft Lip

  A cleft lip is when a baby's lip doesn't form properly during pregnancy. Most kids can have surgery to repair one early in life.

• Cleft Palate

  A cleft palate is when a baby is born with a cleft (gap) in the roof of the mouth. Most kids can have surgery to repair them early in life.

• Chronic Kidney Disease

  Parents of kids who have a chronic kidney disease often worry about what might happen next, how their child feels, and what treatments are likely to be involved. Find answers here.

• Dialysis

  Dialysis is a medical treatment that can take over the job of cleaning the blood when the kidneys can't.

• Glomerulonephritis

  Glomerulonephritis happens when tiny filtering units in the kidneys stop working properly. Most cases get better on their own or with treatment.

• Hemodialysis

  Hemodialysis is a medical treatment that uses a machine with a special filter to take waste and extra water out of the blood.

• Hydrocele

  A hydrocele is a pouch of fluid around the testicle inside the scrotum. Hydroceles are common in newborns, especially preemies.

• Hypospadias

  Hypospadias is when the urethra — the tube that drains pee from the bladder to outside the body — opens in a different place instead of at the tip of the penis.

• Kidney Diseases in Childhood

  The kidneys play a critical role in health. When something goes wrong, it could indicate a kidney disease. What are kidney diseases, and how can they be treated?

• Kidney Stones

  Kidney stones mostly happen to adults, but sometimes kids and teens can get them. Find out what kidney stones are, how to treat them, and ways to help prevent them.

• Kidney Transplant

  If your child needs a kidney transplant, you're probably feeling lots of emotions. Fortunately, many kids who undergo kidney transplants go on to live normal, healthy lives.

• Kidneys and Urinary Tract

  The bean-shaped kidneys, each about the size of a child's fist, are essential to our health. Their most important role is to filter blood and produce urine.

• Meatal Stenosis

  The meatus is the opening in a boy's penis where the urine (pee) comes out. Meatal stenosis is when this is too small.

• Meatoplasty

  The treatment for meatal stenosis is a simple procedure to make the opening of the meatus bigger called a meatoplasty.

• Nephrotic Syndrome

  Nephrotic syndrome happens when tiny filtering units in the kidneys stop working properly. This can cause weight gain and other symptoms. Most kids eventually outgrow it.

• Peritoneal Dialysis

  This medical treatment helps people with kidney failure. It can be done at home, often overnight, to take over the kidneys' job of filtering blood.

• Recurrent Urinary Tract Infections and Related Conditions

  Recurrent urinary tract infections can cause kidney damage if left untreated, especially in kids under age 6. Here's how to recognize the symptom of UTIs and get help for your child.

• Truncus Arteriosus

  Truncus arteriosus is a heart defect that happens when a child is born with one large artery instead of two separate arteries.

• Understanding Sickle Cell Disease

  Sickle cell disease is a blood disorder that makes red blood cells change shape. These sickle shaped cells get stuck together and block small blood vessels. This stops blood from moving as it should, which can lead to pain and organ damage.

• Venous Malformations

  A venous malformation (VM) is a place in the body where veins haven't grown the right way. VMs can be difficult to treat.

• Ventricular Assist Device

  A ventricular assist device is a mechanical pump that takes over for the heart and pumps blood. This can give a weak or injured heart time to heal or support someone as they wait for a heart transplant.

• Ventricular Septal Defect (VSD)

  Ventricular septal defect (VSD) — also known as a "hole in the heart" — is a congenital heart defect. Most VSDs are diagnosed and treated successfully.

• Von Willebrand Disease

  Easy bruising and excessive bleeding can be signs of Von Willebrand disease, a genetic disorder that affects blood's ability to clot.

• What Is a Cardiac Catheterization? (Video)

  A cardiac catheterization is a procedure that cardiologists (heart doctors) do. They put a catheter (a long, thin tube) into a blood vessel, then guide it the heart. Cardiac catheterizations help doctors diagnose and treat many different heart problems.

• What Is an AED (Automated External Defibrillator)?

  An AED (automated external defibrillator) helps treat an abnormal heartbeat when someone has sudden cardiac arrest. Learn about this easy-to-use medical device.

• What’s Hypoplastic Left Heart Syndrome (HLHS)? (Video)

  Hypoplastic left heart syndrome (HLHS) is a problem that happens when the left side of a baby’s heart doesn't form as it should. It’s smaller than normal and can’t pump enough blood to the body. After the baby is born, doctors can treat the problem with medicines and several surgeries.

• What’s an Atrial Septal Defect (ASD)? (Video)

  An atrial septal defect (ASD) is a heart defect in which there is an abnormal opening in the dividing wall between the upper filling chambers of the heart.

• Words to Know (Heart Glossary)

  A guide to medical terms about the heart and circulatory system. In an easy A-Z format, find definitions on heart defects, heart conditions, treatments, and more.

• X-Ray Exam: Chest

  A chest X-ray is a safe and painless test that uses a small amount of radiation to take a picture of a person's chest, including the heart, lungs, diaphragm, lymph nodes, upper spine, ribs, collarbone, and breastbone.

• Helping Your Teen Get Enough Sleep (Video)

  Not getting enough sleep can lead to physical and mental health problems in teens. By making a plan together, you can help your teen sleep better.

• Night Terrors

  A night terror seems similar to a nightmare, but it's far more dramatic. Night terrors can be alarming, but aren't usually cause for concern or a sign of a medical issue.